The Jezreel Jesus

 The great church father Jerome once declared:

“Five gospels record the life of Jesus. Four you will find in books and the one you will find in the land they call Holy. Read the fifth gospel and the world of the four will open to you.”

Jerome’s adage should receive canonization status. As one cannot effectively play chess without a board, so it is when reading the Bible without a strong familiarity of the physical contours of Israel.

The geography of Israel acts as a hidden character throughout the corpus of the Bible; its personality silhouettes the stories in the OT and NT. Woven through the Biblical text, primarily in the OT, is a sub-narrative centered around a neo-trinitarian thread: God, people, and land. [1]

God created man from soil. God granted real estate to a nascent people group to inhabit. Emotionally charged Scriptures comment on the alienation of being exiled from one’s homeland. Modern conflicts between Israelis and Palestinians stem from an intense terra-centric ideology.

Land tethers us to this Earth, informs our worldview, and functions as an identity marker. We tread upon it every day of our lives without paying respect to its ownership over us.

It dramatically influences who people become by impacting the psychosocial faculties. We could say the tangible soil blanketing his planet fertilizes the intellectual soil of our psychology.

Even Jesus was submissive to this “law of the land.”

The Gospels claim Jesus grew up in Nazareth. Now the largest city in the northern district of Israel, the Jewish historian and native Galilean, Josephus, neglects to even mention it perhaps indicating its irrelevance in the Galilee region during the 1^st A.D. Remotely couched in a geological bowl in the hills of Lower Galilee, no major road passed through this hamlet. Nazareth’s view of the surrounding countryside is obstructed to a large degree by the basin’s rims which act as the horizon line. But once one ascends the southern edge of the depression and crests the ridge, the view is nothing less than panoramic. Colloquially called “Nazareth Ridge” but formally accepted as Mt. Precipice, the 1879 ft lookout affords a view 30 miles in three cardinal directions (South, West, and East) across the expansive Jezreel Valley.

View of Nazareth Ridge in the distance. Courtesy Matson Collection.

Peering down from atop the Nazareth Ridge over the Jezreel Valley blanketed with rich alluvial soil (330 feet deep in some spots), a dichotomized view comes into focus: the open expanse of agricultural surplus in the valley vs. the agronomic dearth of Nazareth. Seven major highways passed through this valley. It was an international economic turnstile throughout Israel’s history and no different in 1^st A.D.

But for a young astute Jewish student of Scripture such as Jesus who invariably frequented this lookout with his neighborhood friends, the Jezreel Valley charts a map of OT stories laden with heroic tales of “saviors” who intervened to rescue their fellow constituents from oppressive enemies, anointed kings with political aspirations to exert hegemony in the region, and devoted prophets speaking on behalf of God with miracles on their resume.

To the west on the Mt. Carmel Mountain range, YHWH displayed his predilection for pyrotechnics as Elijah hurled insults at the impotent Syrian storm/fertility god, Baal. Further down the Carmel Range, the prized city of Megiddo, whom Thutmose III boasted “…is like capturing 1000 cities.” Ahaziah, sixth king of Judah, became a casualty at the hands of Jehu the usurper and died there. Josiah, the avant-garde religious reformer, tragically died at the hands of Pharoah Neco at Megiddo.

To the south, Saul and Jonathan lost their lives in battle against the Philistines on Mt. Gilboa. Their heads were decapitated, and bodies unceremoniously hung on the wall of Beth-She’an down the slope. Also, to the south at Tel Jezreel, the winter palace residence of the Omride dynasty where Jezebel manipulated Ahab into murderously confiscating Naboth’s vineyard and because of it reaped the invective death sentence of Elijah. Several years later, Jehu staged a coup at the behest of YHWH. He furiously drove his chariot into the Jezreel Valley from Gilead and executed Elijah’s oracle; Jezebel was thrown from the window of the palace, trampled by chariot horses, and her blood lapped up by dogs. Jehoram, recovering from wounds sustained in battle, was also assassinated by Jehu and his body disposed of in Naboth’s vineyard adjacent to the palace. A short jaunt from Jezreel lies the Harod Spring where Gideon encamped against the Midianites and separated the men from the dogs.

On Mt. Tabor to the east, Deborah and Barak assembled an army to defeat the chariot forces of Sisera in the Jezreel Valley. About 50 years before Jesus’ birth, a rabble rouser by the name of Alexander, the son of a Hasmonean noble, incited a series of uprisings against Rome and was eventually defeated at Mt. Tabor. Mt. Moreh protrudes near the center of the valley and preserves the memory of Elisha’s resuscitation of a dead boy in the village of Shunem on the south side of the mountain. On the opposite side of Mt. Moreh lies Nain, the village where Jesus followed in Elisha’s footsteps. He also revived an unnamed widow’s deceased son. Near Nain, Saul consulted the medium at En-Dor hoping to gain a tactical edge over the Philistines but instead provoked Samuel to anger after waking him from his death sleep. Ophrah, modern day Afula, is positioned almost in the center of the valley and was probably home to the great military liberator leader Gideon.

And that’s just from the southern vista of Nazareth Ridge.

Ascension out of the bowl to the northern ridge and a meager four miles NW sat Sepphoris, a strategically located city Herod the Great captured in a snowstorm in 39-38 B.C. Coined the “ornament of Galilee,” it served as the capital until the construction of Tiberias  circa 20 AD and preserves the memories of a rebel named Judas who led the citizens in a revolt circa 6 AD due to a census issued for tax purposes. In response, the Roman governor Varus dispatched some of his legions to extinguish the flames. Instead, he ignited tensions and subsequently reduced the city to ashes. The ~10 year old Jesus may have watched the city burn perched atop the northern ridge. And three miles north lay the scanty village of Gath-Hepher, home of Jonah the prophet. No wonder Jesus connects himself with Jonah on a few occasions. He was also a prophet to Gentiles but seemed to be rejected as a legitimate diviner by the aristocracy of Jerusalem on geographic grounds; a prejudice Jesus also felt (John 7:52).

All these Biblical stories and current events sat within eyeshot of Jesus conjuring up the rich but violent history of his ancestors. Arguably, the contemporary turbulence he witnessed (see Sepphoris conflagration) created a visceral reproduction of his inherited bellicose traditions the Jezreel Valley retained.

The unmet expectations of OT heroes must have ruminated in his mind. The saviors of Judges and the kings of Israel and Judah all were to some degree designated messiahs chosen by God to promote a global awareness of the true God. They were to circulate the teachings of God, not just to their own constituency but also foreigners constantly passing through this “land between” imperial empires. Their fidelity to God in a pantheistic charged cultic environment would separate Israel and Judah from their neighbors and put on full display the distinctive character of God as a benevolent deity; a celestial concept so far removed from religious mainstream thought as is the east from the west.

But Jesus’ recollection of the past wasn’t the only force he felt.

Below Jesus’ feet, the bounty of a prosperous life as the traffic of the ancient world flowed through the Valley. The Samaria Hills to the south housed the road to Jerusalem, teeming with pilgrims and merchants from Egypt. Arab caravans originating in the remote wastelands of Jordan entered the fords of the Jordan River carrying an array of exotic goods from the Orient. A major artery from Damascus in the north skirted the foot of Nazareth Ridge, meandering through the valley. Ships from the western Mediterranean walked upon the waters of the sea’s vast expanse hauling expensive imported cargo sucked up at the port of Ptolemais, easily seen from the northern ridge. Legions of Roman soldiers carrying their respective standards and politicians escorted by their entourages landed at this port, traversing the roads around and through the valley. The rumors and scandals of the Herodian family reverberated along these roads. The latest news of proclamations by Caesar and pronouncements by the Senate were on the lips of those travelling nearby. Revolts in other parts of the Roman empire surely made their way into conversation amongst a Jewish population bent on reestablishing their national independence, a circumstance they experienced only ~100 years earlier under the Hasmoneans. The rhetoric of Roman politicking and burdensome news of tax rates all must have fallen on the ears of the youthful Jesus.[2]

The sirens of the finer things of life sang their tune while passing through. The melody of the medley of options must have been a struggle to resist growing up in a resource-poor town. The alluring scent of opportunity and intoxicating profusion of commercial affluence must have tugged at the spirit of Jesus.

All the world had to offer lay crouched at Jesus doorstep.

Yet, he did not take the bait.

The external forces pulling at Him from multiple angles provided every justification to jettison the call on His life. He waited until “the time had fully come”, submitting to God’s will and not the temptations of earthly pursuit. Sometimes, what Jesus did NOT do is equally important, if not more illustrative, than what he did do.

As Jesus peered out over this valley marked by blood, violence, death, disappointment, and war, habitually overrun by greater foreign powers, he too may have questioned his inherent identity and how he fit into the narrative of his people. The arrowhead shape of the valley itself personifies its tumultuous history as a war-torn region.

Perhaps he asked himself the following questions:

How am I to function as Messiah, given all the failed attempts by my ancestors?

Do I follow suit and attempt to usher in the Kingdom of God by force as my OT protagonists did or like the Romans do?  

Shunning the ancient war paths blazed by his ancestors, Jesus opted to pursue the road less travelled. He refused to repeat his “family” history or replicate the actions of his fathers.

The aspirations of his predecessors and contemporaries hinged on political maneuvering, nationalistic hopes, and expansion of the land through force.

Jesus employed a more anthropological approach.

His talking points emphasized right relationship between God and neighbor, internal self-awareness, and spaciousness of the heart.

The Jezreel Valley was a psychological crucible, so to speak, for Jesus; a spiritual crossroads he undoubtedly wrestled with as “he grew in wisdom and stature and in favor with men.”

The confluence of past and present of the Jezreel Valley was instructive to Jesus’ singularity and how He chose to live it out. Exploits and adventures of past celebrated Biblical characters clashed with the intrigues and promise of the 1^st AD present, creating a battlefield of ideas. Though the Jezreel Valley retains memories of physical wars, Jesus’ conflict was internal.

Only though interfacing with the geography of Jesus’ hometown can we arrive at such conclusions. If God is the consummate teacher, then His selection of this land is His curriculum. The English word Jezreel is a translation of two Hebrew words meaning “God sows.” And He certainly was sowing something in Jesus in his formative years.

 

---

[1] I am indebted to my teacher, Dr. Paul Wright, who provided this astute insight pertaining to the overall arc of the Biblical narrative.

[2] This paragraph is an adaptation of George Adam Smith’s seminal work. Smith, George Adam. 1920. 4^th Edition, The Historical Geography of the Holy Land, Especially in Relation to the History of Israel and of the Early Church. Pages 433-434. New York, George H. Doran company.

The Vibrance of Silence

"Silence is the language of God. All else is poor translation." (Rumi)

The story of Elijah and the prophets of Baal remains infamous for its recitation of a cosmic showdown between clashing deities. YHWH, the God of Elijah and ostensibly the patron God of Israel, contended with Baal, the imported Syrian storm and fertility god venerated by Jezebel and her prophets. Elijah scheduled a winner-take-all-match with the cultic mediators of Baal at the summit of Mt. Carmel to decide, once and for all, who the people of Israel will worship and who reigned supreme in the heavens.

Readers of this explosive narrative in 1 Kings 18 know how the story unfolds.

In summation, after levying pejorative jabs at Baal, Elijah pleaded fervently with YHWH to make himself known. YHWH obliged by raining down fire bolts (lightning) from heaven, consuming the water and the bull. The spectators witnessed this dazzling theophanic display and unequivocally proclaimed YHWH was God-not Baal. Elijah then proceeded to mercilessly slaughter the prophets of Baal. Immediately after, Elijah implored his servant to search the sky in hopes of detecting rain. Once his servant spotted a storm cloud presumably approaching from the west over the Mediterranean, Elijah ran before Ahab’s chariot all the way to Jezreel.

8th B.C.E. Bar Rakub inscription depicts a Syrian vassal running ahead of Tiglath-Pileser III's chariot, symbolizing devotion and allegiance to the king.

Once the plot line in chapter 18 ends, chapter 19 commences with an irate Jezebel issuing an APB for Elijah’s head on a platter.

And we gloss over an innocuous, almost insignificant phrase in verse 3 indicating Elijah was afraid prompting him to run for his life.

ויּרא ויּקם ויּלך אל־נפשׁו

"Then he as afraid, and he arose and ran for his life."

Three consecutive verbs constitute this five word diction with an integrated rhyme scheme:

"Vayar vayakom vayilekh el nafsho."

The Hebrew appears to employ a euphemistic phrase that English translates "ran for his life:" The transliteration is: "And he went/walked to his soul/life/throat/breath." There are other Hebrew words utilized for run (רוץ) and flee (ברח / נוס) but the author chose the generic verb "to walk" or "to go."

More relevant to the story is the imminent fear Elijah perceived.

Why?

He just witnessed YHWH’s grand pyrotechnics descend from heaven.

How could any mere mortal touch him if he had YHWH on his side raining down thunderbolts?

Why not invoke the name of YHWH again and incinerate Jezebel?

And of all the places Elijah could have ventured, why flee to Sinai? 

In my opinion, Elijah experienced a massive crisis of faith that required sorting.

To understand Elijah’s mentality and perhaps why he felt his ideas about God needed to be hashed out, we need to delve into the worldview of the ancient Near East-specifically the divine manifestations of Baal.

Texts discovered at Ugarit in the 1920's revealed religious and mythical tales of the gods and goddesses worshipped at the site. Yam, El, Anat, and Baal were but a few whose exploits were recorded. Baal is actually a nickname for the god Hadad much in the same way Adonai serves as an epithet for YHWH. Functioning as a storm and fertility god, archaeological evidence characterizes Baal holding a lightning bolt in one hand and riding on clouds. Eventually, the Greeks incorporated Baal into their pantheon but renamed him Zeus.

Stele of Baal striding upon clouds with lightning in left hand. Baal, meaning lord or master, was the nickname of Hadad much in the same way Adonai is a nickname for YHWH

The bull was Baal's mascot so to speak. This is probably the reason Elijah requested bulls to be offered as sacrifices as it was a symbol of Baal’s strength and virility. Baal also brought rain to fertilize the earth inducing crop growth. At the outset of the narrative, a 3-year drought ravaged the country which could also be the impetus behind coordinating this event.

Something needed to happen to persuade YHWH or Baal to bring the rain to sustain life.

Mt. Carmel also owes it's lush vegetation to it's annual 32 inches of precipitation. It's geographic prominence as an elevated land mass near the coast compels the moist air sweeping in off the Mediterranean to rise and condensate. In fact, the Assyrians associated Mt. Carmel with divine activity as they coined it "Baal of the Headlands." Elijah “stacked the deck” against himself. He played an away game on Baal's home field. He furthermore put himself at a great disadvantage by dousing the slaughtered bovines with water.

Elijah must have had all of these streams of thought in his mind during this event. Despite the odds against him, the machinations and supplications of Elijah provoked YHWH to act and proved He was the superior deity.

But, something happened to Elijah’s perception of YHWH after the Mt. Carmel event.

Something caused cognitive dissonance within him requiring resolution.

YHWH behaved exactly like Baal.

He sent fire/lightning from heaven and a storm immediately ensued after the contest.

The theophany of YHWH mirrored the theophany of Baal.

Elijah may have said to himself: Whom do I serve? YHWH or Baal?

To seek clarity for this along with preserving his life, he arduously journeyed south to Sinai. The place where God revealed himself to Moses and the Israelites after exiting Egypt. A location rife with remembrance of God who bestowed an identity on a people group and implored them to follow his "covenantal constitution." It was a tipping point in Israelite history.

Elijah, posted up in a cave (presumably the same area where Moses was when God passed before him), entertained a question from YHWH about why he was there at all.

God’s inquisition in the Hebrew מה לך פה literally reads “What for you here?” 

Elijah responds with fervor, citing his zeal for YHWH as his primary objective.

A series of natural phenomenon transpire; all of them replications of expected exhibitions of Baal.

A big and strong wind mimicking a storm. A loud sound resembling thunder. And fire resembling lightning.

But YHWH was not in any of them.

He was in the קול דממה דקה. "The sound of a low whisper."

I'm convinced דממה דקה (dammamah dakah) is an onomatopoeia in the same vein as whisper. English translations have difficulty capturing the essence of the original language. The Greek translation (LXX) apprehends the nuance behind דממה:

"Vibrant silence."

Expanding on the full phrase, I like to say: "The thunder of a soft vibrant silence."

The antithesis of Baal.

YHWH clarified things for Elijah that stood in contradistinction to the modus operandi of mainstream celestial enterprises. Many other Canaanite/Syrian gods were personified in natural phenomenon. For instance, Yam disclosed his power through the tumultuous and rambunctious waters of the sea. But, YHWH made an vociferous statement to Elijah in a muted manner blowing his expectations out of the water. Elijah seemed so stunned and humbled by YHWH's apparent unorthodox conduct, he couldn't even look past himself as he wrapped his face in his robe.

This event marked a watershed moment in Biblical history on three fronts.

First, YHWH's attenuated display of power on Mt. Sinai in this episode is a harbinger for the remaining arc of the Hebrew Bible.

From this point forward, we see YHWH begin to practice self-effacement. Outside of Elijah's "chariots of fire" experience, the miraculous acts of YHWH begin to dissipate. We see a transition to the writing prophets (Hosea, Amos, Isaiah, Jeremiah) where YHWH speaks directly to them. The Northern Kingdom eventually gets eliminated by Assyria. Then the Judean exile happens, and YHWH is silent for 400 years. Eventually, YHWH becomes so small He becomes one of us and enters the world during a silent night in a nondescript village of Bethlehem. 

Second, YHWH commissions Elijah with altering the geopolitical landscape of the Southern Levant. Hazael, a foreigner, was anointed king of Damascus who eventually made war with the Northern Kingdom. Jehu son of Nimshi became the newly appointed instrument to usurp the throne in Israel. His assassination of Joram, king of Israel, and Ahaziah, king of Judah, effectively truncated the Omride dynasty's reign and established the Nimshide dynasty as the North's new ruling elite.

Third, YHWH asks Elijah to hang up his jersey and pass the mantle on to Elisha. Elijah's time as arguably the most prolific prophet winds down. Perhaps he was existentially exhausted which is hinted at when he asks YHWH to take his life (1 Kings 19:4).

For a personalized twist on the story, how do we react when God’s behavior doesn’t align with our expectations?

What do we do when we experience a crisis of faith that questions our belief about who God is and how He functions?

Where do we go when we encounter unfavorable circumstances in life that push us to our knees?

Paul also retreats to the Sinai region when he undergoes a faith crisis after his encounter with Jesus on the road to Damascus. The Spirit compelled Jesus, presumably, into the wilderness after his supernatural encounter with God during his baptism.

Biblical titans withdraw to remote, holy places when their faith is tested. Reclusion and isolation strip away interfering distractions that blunt the voice of God and allow space for the vibrant silence to permeate our soul. In a world saturated with diversions and foreign voices clamoring for our attention and perhaps, faith, it would behoove us to intentionally immerse ourselves in segments of silence. Book a remote Air BnB. Sit in the woods for a time. Recoil into nature. Retreat to a “holy spot” for you imbued with meaning and simply be. Quiet your soul in moments of spiritual chaos to relax into who God is and to gain clarity in confusing situations that shatter presuppositions of standard operating procedure.

It may happen that even in the most trying and tragic moments of our lives, God desires to collaborate with us to bring immense change, not just in our intrinsic perspective, but in the world and people around us.

The Persian poet Rumi implores the soul to continually practice the art of serenity:

"Silence is an ocean. Speech is a river. When the ocean is searching for you, don’t walk into the river. Listen to the ocean."

Inundate yourself in the language of God and incline your ear to His voice amid the vibrant silence. 

Why Did Jesus Choose Capernaum?

 Of all the places Jesus choose to set up shop, why Capernaum?

Jerusalem was the epicenter of religious life in his day. One would think he would settle there to be among a greater population density to spread is message and worship God at the Temple on a more consistent basis.

After all, the people thought God lived in the Temple, so why not place yourself in close proximity to your dad? (lol)

Jesus never gave us specifics as to why he decided to use Capernaum for his home base of operations but we can surmise why he did based on analysis of a few data points regarding the text itself, pragmatic dispositions, geography, geopolitics, and economics.

The Gospel of Matthew makes an unassuming passing statement in 4:12-13. Upon hearing of his cousin John's imprisonment, Jesus relocates to Galilee from Nazareth and specifically puts down roots in Capernaum.

Why? 

Why not Bethany where his friend Lazarus lived?

Even around the Sea of Galilee, there were other Jewish towns (Chorazin, Bethsaida, Magdala) where he could have made an easy transition.

In order to piece together why Capernaum was Jesus' landing spot, it's important to first dissect where he came from-Nazareth.

To understand where you went, you must understand where you've been.

Nazareth is geographically located in Lower Galilee. Remotely couched in a resource-poor geological bowl, potential for an opulent lifestyle remained virtually zero. The town is built upon a particular rock type formed during the Senonian era. This type of rock is chalky, crumbles easily, doesn't retain water well, and is supbar for growing crops to sustain life. However, it is good for digging cisterns since the rock is very soft.

Peering down from atop the Nazareth Ridge into the Jezreel Valley, which houses some of the richest and most fertile alluvial soil in Israel, a stark contrast is easily observed that dichotomizes the open expanse of surplus in the valley against the limited wealth of Nazareth. No major international road passed through Nazareth; all the action took place below the town in the Jezreel Valley.

Think one stoplight town with a general store and one gas station in the middle of Kansas-that's Nazareth. 

Now, listen to Nathaniel: "Nazareth! Can anything good come from there?" (John 1:46)

Jesus also broke a long standing, deeply embedded cultural norm that many overlook. First born sons were expected to care for their mothers if their husbands died. It's almost a given Jesus' father, Joseph, died sometime between Jesus' early adolescent years and the time he initiated his calling. Joseph isn't mentioned anywhere in the text post Jesus Temple encounter at age 12-13. Mary shows up for Jesus crucifixion. Joseph is MIA. We can safely assume Joseph died sometime in Jesus' adolescent years.

Leaving his mother and siblings to fend for themselves while Jesus pursued his marching orders must have caused significant conflict within the family. We have hints that his mother and siblings thought he was legitimately crazy (Mark 3:21). Jesus even takes pejorative jabs at his family, essentially saying they don't truly follow God (Mark 3:31-35). His own brothers blatantly mocked and attempted to goad him into performing a miracle to gain fame (John 7:1-5).

Tension in the family dynamics could have been another impetus for Jesus to get outta Dodge and move to a place he felt more at ease.

This rendition of Nazareth circa 1840 was painted by David Roberts during his tenure in the Holy Land. It gives a feel of what its size may have been in Jesus' day but also personifies its geographic situation, tucked away in a bowl surrounded by hills. Not much activity went on here.

Map of Galilee depicting proximity of Nazareth to Capernaum

Alternatively, Capernaum sits on a long, narrow strip of land along the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee at the base of the Rosh Pinna Sill. This barrier is comprised of a porous volcanic rock that is hard, durable, and lightweight making it ideal for tool implements. In Jesus day, Capernaum was known for it's basalt millstones (think Matthew 18:6) used to grind wheat into grain.

Strategically located on a chokepoint on the major highway connecting Africa, Asia, and Europe that ran just beyond the town limits, Capernaum functioned as an economic turn style and a megaphone for current events dissemination. Merchants from various nations passed through this bustling beach town, heralding the news of the day from all parts of the world. Jesus' message of the Good News of the Kingdom of Heaven gained international exposure in Capernaum.

Jesus' profession as a builder/repair dude would have also been much more lucrative in Capernaum than in Nazareth. Wayfarers need cart wheels fixed, locals need doors repaired and stone objects fashioned, newcomers need homes built, and fisherman need boats repaired. Capernaum's robust economy offered a greater range of opportunities to generate more income for Jesus.

Capernaum also housed tax collectors (Matthew 9:9) and Roman military and government officials (Matthew 8:5) because it was a customs town stationed just inside Herod Antipas' district on the border of his brother Phillips' district. We read of Peter's origins in Bethsaida but he moves to Capernaum. Bethsaida was located in Phillip's district. Magdala further down the shore from Capernaum was known as a commercial fish salting export industry. If Peter resided in Bethsaida, he would have to cross the border into Antipas' territory and pay taxes on every fish he caught. By moving a few miles down the road to Capernaum, he could avoid fishing taxes.

Bethsaida sits just inside Philip's territory while Capernaum is the first town along the coast travelers hits passing into Antipas' territory from Philip's.

Peter and Jesus also became good friends and probably ended up living together. Matthew, Mark, and Luke all mention Peter's mother being healed by Jesus. Excavations in the late 1960's revealed a 1st century house that expanded into a church. By the 5th century, it fully converted into a Byzantine style octagonal church. Archaeologists believe this church to be Peter's home since it was venerated over time.

Pic of St. Peter's Church in Capernaum

Modern UFO built over church

Projected model of Capernaum in 1st century CE

Another important geographical feature to consider is Capernaum's proximity to Antipas' capital of Tiberius. Maybe Jesus was pissed at Herod for incarcerating John and perhaps thumbing his nose at Herod Jesus moved literally right under his nose, proclaiming a dangerous anti-Roman polemic of the "Kingdom of Heaven." John's imprisonment does seem to be an odd impetus to compel Jesus to leave his home town and move to Capernaum. I'm not sure what to make of that.

Jesus spent his formative years as a blue collar builder in the backwoods of Nazareth until he decided to transition to Capernaum. The psychosocial dynamics of Jesus' family may have been the impetus for him to leave, but other factors also played a role. Galilee's zone of opportunity served as an attractive force for self-improvement and its tranquil environment (compared to Jerusalem) may have impacted Jesus' decision to uproot.

Hezekiah: The Ideal Monarch?

The Biblical text characterizes Hezekiah as a righteous king who trusted the God of Israel. The author of 2 Kings 18:5 goes so far as to say Hezekiah was a cut above all the kings of Judah-both before and after. All the kings paled in comparison to him. Despite the perceived good things Hezekiah did, context and historical records paint him in a different light.

One issue consistently at odds in the scholarly realm is the authenticity of Biblical history and archaeology. While we could touch on a litany of Biblical stories that have problems associated with them, Hezekiah's actions serve our purposes for this issue.

First, let's establish a brief background for the rise of Hezekiah.

To begin, he inherited the throne from his father Ahaz who was stricken with a tumultuous reign. Rezin of the Arameans and Pekah of Israel attacked Jerusalem and took captives to Damascus. Edom also invaded Judah with the help of Rezin and together they stripped Eilat from Ahaz's hands. This was a massive economic blow. Eilat was a prime port for Judah that facilitated their trade. The Philistines also attempted to wield their power on the western and southern front by swarming the Shephelah and Negev regions.

Needless to say, Ahaz was hemed in on all sides, slowly asphyxiated by other regional powers.

As a result, Ahaz made a savvy political move (the opposite of what his son ends up doing). He bribed Tiglat-Pileser III (TP3) of Assyria for military assistance, gutting the silver and gold in the Temple and the palace treasury (by the way, Isaiah had some choice words for Ahaz because of this treaty). Now TP3 had Ahaz in his pocket. Judah was now officially submissive to Assyria. With Assyria now acting as the big brother in Judah, law and order was restored under Ahaz and political stability now took shape.

Enter Hezekiah.

He likely witnessed all the turmoil, bloodshed, and political intrigue surrounding his father's career. The treaty Ahaz made with Assyria now transferred to Hezekiah upon his father's death. By default, Hezekiah was a politically indebted subject of Assyrian control. And he played nice for about 14 years acting as a loyal vassal until he decided, per Anson Rainey, to make a "stupid maneuver." Before we tackle that escapade, let's highlight some beneficial moves Hezekiah made during the course of his reign. It's only fair to make positive remarks along with the negatives.

1. Conducted a national Passover celebration. He sent messengers to all of Israel and Judah, inviting them to participate. Some obliged and others declined. (2 Chronicles 30:1)

2. Restored temple worship. He cleansed the Temple of foreign idols. (2 Chronicles 29:15)

3. He obeyed Sargon II and reaped tremendous profits from the trade routes he governed. (2 Kings 20:13)

4. Shut down local cultic centers, tore down pillars, cut down Asherah poles, and removed the high places. Although this may be construed as an act worthy of replication and fidelity to God, its ensuing implications underscore the true motivation for why he did this.

Now for the bad news.

Hezekiah attempted to invoke a spiritual renaissance in Judah by centralizing worship. He mandated all worship of YHWH was to be performed in Jerusalem alone. Let's think about that for a moment. Imagine the Pope, out of the blue, says, "All Christians must now worship at the Vatican. All other religious centers are banned from worshiping God."

This is what Hezekiah did. He outlawed all other shrines outside of Jerusalem. If we read in between the lines, money was the motivating factor. Centralizing worship means more money for the priesthood and the administration.

Let's shift back to the "stupid maneuver" we alluded to earlier.

In 705 BC, Sargon II was killed in battle in Turkey. This initiated a changing of the guard and political unrest in the Assyrian kingdom (not unlike what has transpired in the US as of late). Hezekiah viewed this as a prime opportunity to break free from the Assyrian yoke. He spearheaded an anti-Assyrian coalition, aided by the political backing of Egypt, Babylon, Phoenicia, Edom, Moab, and Ammon.

Those who didn't comply, he had imprisoned. Hezekiah conspired with the local folk of Ekron to illegally imprison their ruler, Padi, because he didn't support the rebellion. Hezekiah also bullied the king of Gaza, Silli-Ba'al, by occupying Philistine strongholds in he Western Negev.

Sennacherib, the son of Sargon II, took note and was none too pleased with Hezekiah's political maneuvering and made preparations to invade Judah. Hezekiah caught wind of Sennacherib's intentions and he countered by making preparations of his own. He began to fortify towns on the western front (Gezer, Azekah, Lachish, Gath, and Libnah).

In Jerusalem, Hezekiah managed to reroute the Gihon spring by channeling the water inside the city in order to protect the vital source from the pending invasion.

See 2 Chronicles 32:30, 2 Kings 20:20

He built the "Broad Wall" (later discovered by Nachman Avigad) that was 8 meters thick-a piecemeal fortification that utilized stones from houses.

See Isaiah 22:8-11

In 701 BCE, Sennacherib came gallivanting through the land, leaving nothing in his wake. He destroyed 46 cities, completely decimating the kingdom of Judah. Lachish, the second most important city behind Jerusalem and Judah's breadbasket, was reduced to rubble.

A drawing of the relief of the Siege of Lachish found in Sennacherib's palace in Nineveh.

With the majority of the country in flames, Sennacherib set his sights on Judah's capital. While he barricaded Lachish, Sennacherib sent one of his officials to Jerusalem in order to implore Hezekiah to surrender. According to the Biblical text, an angel smote the Assyrian army causing them to retreat. Herodotus, a 5th BCE Greek historian, claims the army was attacked by mice and ate all their leather equipment.

Sennacherib did end up taking Jerusalem, just not by force. Hezekiah emptied out the Temple treasury to pay Sennacherib to go away. Sennacherib documented all his exploits on the prism pictured below. Despite his shortcoming in securing Jerusalem, he boasted how he "...made a prisoner (Hezekiah) in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird in a cage."

Sennacherib's Prism speaks of the 46 cities of Judah he destroyed and boasts of his Jerusalem siege. 

From this point, Judah once again is the puppet of a larger imperial outfit and Hezekiah spends the rest of his days bearing the fiscal weight of his colossal indiscretion.

Thus is the story of the illustrious career of Hezekiah and his revolt. Yes, Jerusalem was spared, but the rest of the county laid bare in ruins and he ostensibly had no country left to govern. Heavy taxes were levied against the kingdom for Hezekiah's disobedience. And guess who inherited the chaos and disarray of  Hezekiah's decision?

Manasseh.

Given all this, can we really blame Manasseh, Hezekiah's son, for the things he did? The Bible portrays him as the worst king who ever lived-the complete antithesis of his father. However, he inherited a political and economic maelstrom Hezekiah left behind.

The irony in all of this hinges on Hezekiah's faithfulness to God, yet his kingdom was destroyed. Perhaps we can understand Manasseh's reluctance to follow in his father steps and serve YHWH. Look at what YHWH allowed to happen to Judah despite his father's faithfulness to Him! After all the religious reforms and adherence to YHWH, Judah still suffered immensely. The psychosocial dimension of Manasseh was to revert back to other gods who would protect and bless the country once gain because YHWH had not.

We do discover later Manasseh repented and led the people back to God.

The question concerning all of this, especially Hezekiah, is how we balance the authenticity of the Biblical text, the veracity of extra-Biblical sources, and the integration of context to help expound what has truly transpired behind the scenes. Only so much can be gleaned reading the Bible superficially. Peripheral factors must also be taken into account, giving us a more panoramic view of the story behind the story.

Why Jerusalem?

In an earlier post, we touched on the Bible being a "Jerusalem-centric" book. In other words, the capital of the Southern Kingdom played a key role in the history of ancient Israel functioning as the religious and political center from the time of David until its destruction at the hands of the Romans in 70 CE. Its mentioned approximately 750 times by name in the Bible and over 2000 times by other designations. More impressive is its claim to being the most excavated city in the world.

But why is it special?

It has minimal resources to offer other than stones for building. It does contain an attractive water source (Gihon Spring) suitable to sustain life. One would conjecture with all the spiritual significance surrounding it Torah would make use of it-not one mention. Its name appears for the first time in Joshua. Neither Joshua nor Judges elevates the status of Jerusalem. In fact, the city existed in obscurity for over 6,000 years until David claimed it.

Other capitals predated Jerusalem's prestige. Shiloh was the first Israelite capital under Joshua until Saul shifted the power base to Gibeah. After finally wresting royal control from Saul, David initially set up shop at Hebron in the south. It wasn't until he conquered Jebus from the Jebusites that he renamed it the City of David AKA Jerusalem and permanently entrenched it as the capital of Judah.

Which leads us to a series of questions.

Why did David move his capital north to Jerusalem from Hebron? Why not remain there?

What did Jerusalem have to offer that other traditional capitals (Shiloh or Gibeah) didn't? Shiloh was the original resting place for the Tabernacle when the Israelites rooted themselves in the land. Why not return to the glory days and reestablish Shiloh as the capital?

Jerusalem is kind of off the beaten path and tucked away in the rugged Judean hills, unaccessible to high volumes of traffic. Capitals are places of commerce, exchange of ideas, political power bases, and typically situated in urban settings. You need people to participate in these activities. Jerusalem doesn't fit the bill.

Again, with all these factors working against Jerusalem to be a prime capital city, why did David choose it?

Here are a number of reasons why David chose Jerusalem, for personal and political interests, to be a permanent fixture for the Judean monarchy.

1. Proximity to Home

David grew up in Bethlehem, a meager 7 miles south of Jerusalem. He likely lead his flocks around the area and perhaps to the Gihon Spring itself. This was familiar territory for him. His clashes with the Jebusites as a shepherd for water and grazing rights may have embittered his attitude towards them. This would motivate him later to conquer their city.

2. National Unity

If David's goal was to create a unified nation instead of a tribal society, he needed to move north. Remaining in Hebron, he would only be recognized as king of Judah. If he moved to a more centralized location, chances increased for a cohesive nation comprised of all the tribes.

The Jebusite enclave also drove a geographical wedge between the north and the south, depreciating the probability for a unified nation. This necessitated a takeover of the city to eliminate any internal threats from foreigners. David did not raze the city to the ground, but magnanimously spared the inhabitants of Jerusalem. This shrewd move allowed him to neutralize any menacing actions from foreigners yet allowed him the latitude to incorporate them into his administration. For example, he bought the threshing floor from Aravnah the Jebusite where he later established the Tabernacle and Uriah the Hittite became one of his warlords.

3. Tribal Appeasement

Saul descended from the line of Benjamin, David from Judah. David was not considered a legal heir to throne in the eyes of the Benjaminites. Johnathan and Ish-Boshet, Saul's sons, claimed blood rights to the throne but they died. David may have been too afraid to continue capitalistic functions at Gibeah because it was associated with Saul and he was not of royal lineage. So David did what any good politician would do: he compromised. Jerusalem is technically situated in Benjaminite territory with the Valley of Hinnom acting as the north-south border between Judah and Benjamin. This brilliant, tactical move gave the Benjaminites "bragging rights" and allowed David to keep a crooked eye out for them in closer proximity to squash any revolts. David kept his friends close and his enemies closer.

4. Tradition of Kingship

This concept of kingship associated with Jerusalem stretches back to Melchi-Tzedek, who was both king and high priest of God Most High. Abraham had a delectable communion meal with Melchi-Tzedek and payed a tithe to him from his plunder to honor the king. If Abraham payed taxes, so goes the logic, then every Israelite who is a son of Abraham should pay taxes to the king of Jerusalem.

There is also a semantic feel of "righteousness" associated with Jerusalem. In Hebrew, Melchi-Tzedek means "my righteous king" or "king with righteousness." Kings who were not righteous nor legal heirs to the throne tended to self-indict themselves are righteous. Sargon of Assyria selected his name intentionally, which means "king with truth," although he was not a legal heir to the throne-just like David. Perhaps these thoughts ruminated in David's mind, propelling him to set up shop in Jerusalem.

Here is an even more fascinating insight that could be related to David's outlook on Jerusalem being associated with righteousness. Melchi-Tzedek's name occurs only two instances in the Bible. Once in Genesis 14 when Abraham visits him. Guess where the other mention occurs? Psalm 110-a Psalm David devised.

5. Geopolitical Advantage

Every nation needs revenue to subsist. Fiscal gains are generated by taxing commerce that runs through road systems. Jerusalem sits at a centralized crossroads that runs in all cardinal directions. It's perched along the main artery (Patriarchal Highway or Watershed Ridge Route) that runs north and south from Dan to Beersheva and the road that runs east and west from Jordan to Jaffa. If David controls Jerusalem, he controls trade and stands to make a pretty penny. In other words, he becomes a baller shot caller.

Jerusalem wasn't chosen by David because God said so. The realities behind the decisions of the Biblical characters provide a window into their cognitive dispositions as the divine-human drama unfolds. Learning to read in between the lines and with careful attention to events that predate or postdate the present events recorded in the text helps us get a firmer grasp of why people did what they did.

Israelite Literacy

One hot topic of debate in Biblical academia is the literacy rate in ancient Israel. Scholars land all over the map in their conclusions-some claim Israel was highly literate among the masses and others say only the elite were educated enough to read and write.

The following is a paper I wrote at JUC summarizing the arguments for and against a fully literate Israelite society. Please feel free to disagree and add your own perspectives. Enjoy!

Introduction

The degree of literacy among the ancient Israelite populace remains a subject of debate among scholars. Within the Biblical narrative, people of diverse cultural and occupational backgrounds are noted to have read or wrote documents. A band of experts on paleographic studies suggest literacy was, at the very least, prevalent among the masses during the late Judean monarchy.  Based on economic factors, societal conditions, and technology, other scholars adopt a minimalist approach for rampant literacy during the Biblical era. Many scholars today position their theories of Israelite literacy on the distribution Hebrew epigraphic finds. This paper will discuss the varying perspectives of scholars concerning the literacy competency of the wider population during the Biblical period. Theoretical considerations influencing the spread, or lack thereof, of literacy, epigraphic analysis, standards of literacy, and Biblical mention of reading and writing will be weighed in the course of this essay.

Definition of Literacy

How do we define literacy in antiquity? What we perceive in the 21st century as “functional literacy” may acquiesce to a different barometer than literacy standards in ancient Israel. Literacy in oral cultures may be predicated on the ability to use language in a sophisticated manner.  Still others presuppose literacy necessitates a high linguistic aptitude in reading and writing.  Rollston proposed a three tiered classification system for literacy levels among ancient Israelites. First he interpreted the term “literacy” as: “a substantial facility in a writing system, that is, the ability to write and read, using and understanding a standard script, a standard orthography, a standard numeric system, conventional formatting and terminology, and with minimal errors (of composition or comprehension).”  People in ancient Israelite society who possessed these capabilities were considered “literate.” Excluded from this camp are those who can write their name on a contract, yet possess no capacity to read or write at a reasonably functional level. Semiliterate people were those who could read with moderate competence and read and write simple words. Third, Rollston admits there are variations in the aforementioned categories, but the data does not exist for us to make accurate assumptions about the gradients in these aberrations.

Societal Factors Contributing to Literacy

William Harris attempted to evaluate the prevalence of lexical education in the Greco-Roman world,  leading him to question the assumed favorable literacy estimates.  He argued certain societal preconditions must be met before for the diffusion of literacy among a mass population occurs. For instance, technology must be available to produce a vast number of inexpensive texts. Without the printing press, no incentive to read among the general population remains.  Secondly, a network of extant schools funded by the state or a religious institution is essential to high literacy rates. Harris claims no society can achieve a majority percentage of literacy among its constituents without a structured school system. Economic complexity also encourages a large segment of the population to acquire a level of literacy.  In order to exchange goods or sign and read contracts and/or receipts, participating parties must have a functioning level of literacy. Finally, a ubiquitous ideology for economic, religious, or philanthropic purposes must view literacy as a worthwhile endeavor. Based on his criteria, Harris concluded the majority of people in the ancient societies were illiterate.

How did Israelite society measure up to Harris’ standards? It goes without saying Israel did not have a printing press, making it virtually impossible to mass produce texts. Additionally, Warner conjectured that “the availability and type of writing materials in Israel had an adverse effect upon its literacy rate.”  The lack of machinery to produce texts on a wide scale and sub-par writing implements and materials may explain the dearth of texts discovered at archeological excavations in the land of Israel.


To Harris’ second point, debate among scholars continues concerning the prominence of schools among Israelite society in antiquity. If these schools did exist, no evidence remains to indicate they ventured to educate the masses.  Lemaire  thought otherwise. He claimed during the monarchy of Judah, considerable school systems were in place that developed from the earlier monarchy. These schools originally were delegated for professional scribes but eventually the curriculum was expanded to include the general public. Lemaire based his theory upon Deut. 6:6-9, and inscriptions he presumed to be random sketches from school children.  Golka’s hypothesis ran counter to Lemaire based on sociological objections.  Golka stressed the stages of political and cultural development in Egyptian and Israelite society in the 10th BCE and called for a comparison between Israel’s early monarchy to that of the Egyptian Old Kingdom, where all education occurred in the home. Thus, Golka was convinced that schools did not exist during monarchic Israel. Jamieson-Drake rationalized the Old Hebrew alphabet was easy enough that one person could pass alphabetic knowledge on to another, making schools unnecessary.

There are implications schools existed during the early Biblical era at three different sites. A 13th BCE bilingual dictionary found at Ashkelon displays a word for word translation from Sumerian to Canaanite.  Someone with a working knowledge of Cuneiform and Canaanite must have been present to teach the author or the writer inscribed it alone. Aphek yielded a Late Bronze Age fragment of a trilingual dictionary in Akkadian, Sumerian, and Canaanite that described the names of liquids.  A Judges Era  abecedary from ‘Izbet Sartah appears to display a rudimentary written alphabet probably scribed by a child learning his/her Alef-Bet-Dalet’s.  Despite these significant finds, we have no unequivocal evidence of an established school at these sites. Furthermore, all the sites are located outside Israelite territory during the Late Bronze Age. We can surmise the potential of small scale academic institutions related to the Canaanite language based on the aforementioned finds. Perhaps this idea of small scale academic institutions was adopted in later periods of Israelite history, as Lemaire suggests.

The extent of economic activity in ancient Israel remains questionable. According to the Biblical account, Israel’s economy, at least during the Conquest and Judges periods, was not conducted on a large scale and likely remained localized. The largely agrarian society ascribed minimal importance to literacy skills.  Only during the establishment of David’s kingdom and Solomon’s expansion do we see economic affluence infiltrate the land of Israel with references to the great wealth of Solomon.  Perhaps literacy rates may have increased during the reigns of David and Solomon, opening the door for literacy to proliferate and trickle down to the later Iron Age II period.
Importance of the Alphabet

By the 10th BCE, the alphabet was invented opening the doorway for the common person to gain the ability to read and write.  The invention of the alphabet by the Canaanites may have had a transformative effect on literacy rates among the early Israelites. During the 9th BCE, the Canaanite alphabet became the official script of the ancient Near East. Goldwasser  claims the Canaanite alphabet was a monumental revolution in the world of literacy. This style of communication simplified older versions of writings integrating less than 30 signs and only a handful of grammatical rules associating signs with sounds. Literacy was no longer relegated to elite scribes. Now, the average member of society could access knowledge in order to read and write.  Albright also supports this notion when he stated “since the forms of the letters are very simple, the 22- letter alphabet could be learned in a day or two by a bright student and in a week or two by the dullest.”  His strong position is accentuated by his theory that many were literate as early as the period of the Judges.

More recent scholars take a conservative approach. Rollston insists we exercise pause when making assumptions about the simplicity of the Canaanite alphabet system and the expedited pace at which one could acquire a fluid knowledge.  His case is supported by studies in modern language acquisition. Essentially, language proficiency transpires in a series of stages over the course of years, not days or weeks. Thus, Rollston considers any argument for pervasive literacy based on the simplicity of learning an alphabet problematic.
Official vs. Popular Literacy

Wright dissected Biblical literacy into two categories: official and popular.  Demsky elaborated on this idea, also citing two categories of literacy during the Biblical era. A scribal class that comprised no more than 5% of the population wrote for their own professional needs or enjoyment.  They belonged to a closed society while learning in a structured environment. Royal scribes were responsible for record keeping, managing international and local affairs, communicated political truth (i.e. propaganda), read documents to the king, and wrote letters on his behalf.

Popular literacy included a literate society with the potential for more widespread literacy.  Demsky claims Iron Age Israel “was a literate society characterized by a national literature and a growing number of nonprofessional literate people, particularly from the eighth century onward.”  He bases his conclusion on epigraphic evidence. (1) In the 8th BCE to 6th BCE, Judahite seals were generally designed without iconographic motifs and were replaced with writing. Assuming the seal served an administrative function and aesthetics were a non-issue, supplanting a symbols with words hints at a flourishing literate society. (2) Some inscriptions from the Iron Age era contain a vulgar script, likely not used by well-educated people (Gibeon jar handles and graffiti from Kh. Beit Lei and Kh. El-Qom).  (3) Discovered inscriptions display material purposefully written by and for farmers and craftsmen (Samaria ivories). Potters, ivory joiners, and craftsman began to implement writing into their fields. Also, epigraphic evidence suggests vine dressers were becoming increasingly literate.  (4) The Prophets wrote down their prophecies in hopes of promoting their message. Their writings sought to close the gap between a literate group and a lay audience. (5) The critique of writing is also an indicator of a literate society (Is. 10:1; Jer. 8:8).  All these point to popular literacy being mainstream or at least beginning to take root in Iron Age I.

Biblical examples also highlight a moderate to high level of popular literacy during the Iron Age II period. (1) Prophets wrote to popularize their message among the masses, assuming others possessed a basic level of literacy (Jer. 25:26; 51:1). (2) Sharp criticism of the royal scribe’s misappropriation of writing and their misuse of power is emphasized (Is. 10:1-2; Jer. 8:8). (3) Changes in transactions begins to occur, such as written contracts instead of binding oral agreements (Jer. 32:10-14 stands in contradistinction to Gen. 23 and Ruth 4:1-11). In addition, personal signatures are recorded by scribes instead of lists of names (Jer. 32:12; Neh. 10:1-28).


Significant Epigraphic Evidence

Another method of ascertaining literacy levels is through Hebrew epigraphic material. A wide distribution of inscriptions have led scholars to formulate liberal estimates of widespread literacy. Moreover, the large number of seal impressions testify to a wider group of merchants, landowners, or religious personnel outside of governmental officials who could read these letters to identify the seals.  The most plentiful examples of Hebrew writings stem from the 7th BCE and early 6th BCE and are largely comprised of short messages written in ink on potsherds, better known as ostraca. These inscriptions have been discovered in a variety of contexts. Major towns like Jerusalem and Lachish and military settlements such as Arad and Aroer contain ostraca.

Stone seals are the most common objects found incised with the owner’s name and usually accompanied with the father’s name. They are typically found in burials and settlements, along with one discovered at a farm in the Buqei’ah valley. Stone weights are another class of seals created during this during Iron Age II with shekel values were incised into the stone using words. Random graffiti in tombs (Khirbet el-Qom, Khirbet Beit Lei) also attest to common people possessing the ability to write. All these date to the last 150 years of Judah’s history.  The Samaria Ostraca, dated to 775 to 750 BCE, displays the work of record keepers but outside of this find, few Hebrew texts exist that can be dated before 700 BCE. One exception is the site of Khirbet Qeiyafa. Ganor and Garfinkel unearthed an ostraca with Hebrew script dated to the 10th BCE.  The Tel Zayit abecedary appears to stem from the late 10th BCE to early 9th BCE.  The Gezer Calendar, also from the 10th BCE, signifies a knowledge of writing in ancient Israel but is not written in a Hebrew script.
Biblical Evidence

Throughout the Bible, reading, writing, and books are frequently mentioned. Moses writes God’s covenant with Israel (Ex.24:4), Israel’s wanderings from Egypt to Canaan (Num. 33:2), his song (Dt. 31:25), and Torah (Dt. 31:9). Other laws were written by God (Ex. 32:16; 34:1 4).  Important religious leaders and prominent Biblical characters also read and wrote: Joshua (Josh. 1:8; 24:26), Samuel (1 Sam. 10:25), David (2 Sam. 11:14), Jezebel (1 Kings 21:8), the king of Damascus (2 Kings 5), and Jehu (2 Kings 10).

Known literacy rates for kings in the Bible remains elusive. Kings may have had the ability to read and write for themselves but scribes may have acted on their behalf.  The Book of the Law that was found in the Temple was read by Shaphan to Josiah (2 Kings 22:10). Jehudi read Jeremiah’s prophecies to Jehoiakim (Jer. 36:20-26). Though Jeremiah was not a king, he summoned Baruch to write for him (Jer. 36:4). Esther 8:8-9 depicts the Persian king ordering royal scribes to write for Esther and Mordecai. Being read to and delegating a scribe to write for someone of royal ilk may have been a routine practice and says little about the literacy level of the recipient.  Ashurbanipal (7th BCE) boasted about his level of literacy and his proficiency in reading Akkadian, perhaps insinuating he was one of a select few rulers who could read and write. Thus, official scribes likely read to kings and wrote for them in the distant past.  On the other hand, Deut. 17:18-19 portrays future kings as being literate entities, charging them to copy and read Torah for themselves.

The Bible also assumed a basic familiarity with writing among the ordinary citizen. A certificate of divorce was expected to be written by a man divorcing his wife (Deut. 24:1-3; Is. 50:1; Jer. 3:8). The Sh’ma expresses that Torah was to be written on the doorposts of houses and on city gates (Deut. 6:9; 11:20). The nation of Israel at large was commanded to write Torah on stones after they crossed the Jordan River (Deut. 27:2-3, 8). Inscribed monuments were billboards for travelers passing by (Josh. 8:30-35), intimating a commoner could decipher what was written on the stone.
Conclusion

A segment of academics today and years past advocate for a high literacy rate among the common citizenry beginning in the 8th BCE and reaching its zenith in 6th BCE. Scholars such as Albright, Goldwasser, Cross, and Hess make over generalizations about literacy based on a facile alphabet and sporadic inscriptional treasures. Other scholars such as Rollston are more judicious in their approach to interpreting epigraphic relics, noting caution must be exercised when contending non-elites were literate based on the cumulative data of discovered abecedaries. Harris draws sweeping accusations about literacy within his framework of societal preconditions that leads him down a rigid road of illiterate universalism in the ancient world. The Bible provides minimal documentation of ordinary people reading and writing. At the very least, we can reasonably assume many of the aristocrats of Biblical antiquity achieved reading and writing skills-most notably the class of royal scribes and governmental officials.  What we are left wanting is the nature of literacy amongst the rank and file of the proletariat. Positions on both sides of the fence raise compelling arguments but, barring a colossal treasury of inscriptions detailing an appraisal of literacy, we are left to merely conjecture about the true nature of literacy in ancient Israel.



Bibliography

Albright, William F., Discussion. Pp. 94–123 in City Invincible: A Symposium on Urbanization and Cultural Development in the Ancient Near East, ed. C. H. Kraeling and Robert M. Adams. (1960) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Beck, Pirhiya and Moshe Kochavi, “Aphek”, The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land Vol. 1 (Jerusalem: Carta, 1993).
Cross, F. M., “The Origin and Evolution of the Alphabet”, EI 8 (1967) 12ff.
Demsky, A., “On the Extent of Literacy in Ancient Israel”, in Janet Amitai (ed.), Biblical Archaeology Today Proceedings of the International Congress on Biblical Archaeology Jerusalem, April 1984 (Jerusalem, 1985) p. 349.
Demsky, A., “Reading Northwest Semitic Inscriptions”, Near Eastern Archaeology 70:2 (2007).
Demsky, A., “Dark Wine from Judah”, IEJ (1972) pp. 233-234.
Garfinkel, Yosef and Ganor, Saar, “Khirbet Qeiyafa Vol. 1 Excavation Report 2007-2008”, IEJ and Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2009).
Goldwasser, O., “How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphics”, BAR 36:02 Mar/Apr 2010.
Golka, F. W., “Die Israelitische Weisheitsschule oder ‘des Kaisers neue Kleider’”, VT 33 (1983) pp. 257- 70.
Harris, W., Ancient Literacy (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1989).
Hess, R., “Writing about Writing: Abecedaries and Evidence for Literacy in Ancient Israel”, VT 56 (2006): 342–46.
Humphrey, J. H., Literacy in the Roman World (Ann Arbor, 1991).
Huehnergard, J. and Soldt, W., “A Cuneiform Lexical Text from Ashkelon with a Canaanite Column”, IEJ (1999) 49:184-192.
Jamieson-Drake, D. W., Scribes and Schools in Monarchic Judah: A Socio-Archaeological Approach. JSOTSup 109. 1991 Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Kochavi, M., “An Ostracon of the Period of the Judges from ‘Izbet Sartah”, TA (1977) 4/1-2:1-13.
Lamaire, A., “Schools and Literacy in Ancient Israel and Early Judaism”, in L. Perdue (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to the Hebrew Bible (trans. A. Niang; Oxford: Blackwell, 2001): 207-12.
Millard, A. R., “The Practice of Writing in Ancient Israel”, BA 35 (1972) pp. 98-111.
Millard, A. R., “An Assessment of the Evidence for Writing in Ancient Israel”, Biblical Archaeology Today (n. 6), pp. 303-306.
Millard, A. R., “Literacy (Israel)”, The Anchor Bible Dictionary Vol. 4 (1992) pp. 337-340.
Naveh, J., “A Paleographic Note on the Distribution of the Hebrew Script”, HTR 61 (1968) pp. 68-74.
Rollston, Christopher A., “The Phoenician Script of the Tel Zayit Abecedary and Putative Evidence for Israelite Literacy”, Eisenbrauns.
Rollston, Christopher A., “Scribal Education in Ancient Israel: The Old Hebrew Epigraphic Evidence”, BASOR 344: 47–74.
te Velde, H., “Scribes and Literacy in Ancient Egypt”, H. L. J. Vanstiphout, K. Jongeling, F. Leemhuis, and G. J. Reinink (ed.) Scripta Signa Vocis Studies about Scripts, Scriptures, Scribes, and Languages in the Near East Presented to J. H. Hospers (Groningen, 1986).
Quick, L., “Recent Research on Ancient Israelite Education: A Bibliographic Essay”, Currents in Biblical Research 2014 13:9.
Warner, S., “The alphabet: an innovation and its diffusion”, VT 30 (1980) pp. 81-90.
Wright, Paul, Cultural Backgrounds Lecture (2014)
Young, Ian M., “Israelite Literacy,” VT XLVII (1998).